Chaos and Order: Magical and Anti-magical Books in Boiardo and Ariosto

Julia M. Kisacky

Baylor University

	chaotic effects		demons		failure		orderly effects		reader’s ability
	block plot	disperse characters					break up plot block	converge characters
SPELL BOOKS
Boiardo
Malagise		xx		x		x
Angelica		xx		x
Ariosto
Malagigi		x		x		x
Atlante	x					x
hermit		x		x		x		x
Melissa				x				x
HOW-TO BOOKS
Boiardo
palmer							x			x
Morgana							x			x
Falerina							x			x
Ariosto
Logistilla							xx			x

Introduction

The topos of magic permeates both Boiardo’s Orlando innamorato and Ariosto’s Orlando furioso. Inherited from the diverse Classical, Arthurian, and popular traditions, magic takes many forms and serves various purposes in the poems. Boiardo’s fabulous poetic world is completely inconceivable without magic, without enchantresses, monsters, and giants who test the heroes at every turn and provoke meraviglia. Even in Ariosto’s more rational, classicizing world, magic is an important structural component. Magic is one of the vital threads in the tapestry of the Furioso, as indispensable as women or horses or knights.

Magic in the two poems is associated with the chaotic, chance, and the irrational. As such it is often the cause of delays in the advancement of the plot toward a conclusion, either by blocking the plot so that characters remain unproductively fixed in place, or by dispersing characters from the site of their duty to the realms of adventure. In the Innamorato magic artifacts have, as a rule, dispersive and obstructive effects—unless they have an anti-magical function, such as Merlin’s fountain of disamore or Angelica’s ring. Ariosto tends to follow this precedent, but with some important exceptions that allow for the possibility of controlling these chaotic forces (Kisacky).

The poets’ treatment of marvelous books provides an illustrative example of these linked concepts. The vast majority of books that appear in the poems have to do with magic, such that Negri’s remark, “dai libri nel Furioso non usciranno altro che diavolerie” (22), is equally valid for the Innamorato. These marvelous books are of two types: the books used by sorcerers in the casting of spells, and the how-to books that guide knights in overcoming magical dangers. The former type theoretically records various spells; in practice these spells tend to be reduced to one, that of controlling demons. The how-to books contain detailed information on specific dangers that the knight may encounter, and practical instructions for achieving victory. The chaotic effects generally associated with magic adhere strongly to the spell books. The how-to books, on the other hand, have an anti-magical nature and consequently promote the orderly advancement of the plot.

Spell Books

The Demonic Connection

In these two poems all but one of the spell books of the sorcerers are associated with demons. The diabolic connection is certainly not original with either Ariosto or Boiardo, but belongs to medieval tradition.^[1] Both Boiardo and Ariosto portray the demons as less menacing than comic. Demons from the spell books provide information, transportation, and illusions.

The only spell book in the Orlando innamorato belongs to the Christian sorcerer Malagise. The book’s demons supply information and speedy transportation in the episode of Malagise’s abortive attack on the Cathayan camp.

Much later in the poem (2.22), Malagise commands demons to ambush two pagan knights. Malagise’s power would seem to be overwhelming when as soon as he opens his book the forest is full of demons: “Più de ducento ne è per ogni foglia” (2.22.45.4). However, the ensuing description of the demon Scarapino paints a picture not of formidable satanic malevolence, but of a mischievous imp who enjoys the good life:

Era un demonio questo Scarapino,

Che dello inferno è proprio la tristizia:

Minuto il giottarello e piccolino,

Ma bene è grosso e grande di malizia;

Alla taverna, dove è miglior vino,

O del gioco e bagascie la divizia,

Nel fumo dello arosto fa dimora,

E qua tentando ciascadun lavora. (2.22.46)

Though the pagans number only two, they are the famous knights Feraguto and Rodamonte, and with their martial virtù they rout the hordes of demons as easily as they would a human mob.

Ariosto provides four exemplars of spell books, three of which retain the traditional connection with demons. First, the hermit of Canto 2 sends a demon to separate Rinaldo and Sacripante from Angelica. With Melissa’s spell book, the narrator seems at first unsure of the provenance of the spirits she has summoned (“non so se da l’inferno o da qual sede,” 3.20), but ends up calling them demons. Melissa employs them as actors in her illusionary pageant of Bradamante’s Estensi descendants. Near the end of the Furioso, Malagigi summons demons to discover the whereabouts of Angelica. All three of these sorcerers employ demons at other points in the poem either without their books or without mention of their books; it would seem that, for Ariosto’s sorcerers, the books are helpful tools but not indispensable.

The single spell book not used in connection with demons is that of Atlante. Instead, he casts illusions that, together with other magical aids, enable him to imprison many knights in his steel palace.

Chaotic Effects

The spell books overwhelmingly promote chaotic effects; specifically, all but one of them cause delays in the advancement of the plot toward a conclusion. These delays can take the form either of blocks to the plot, or of the dispersal of Christian characters from the site of their duty to the realms of adventure.

In the Innamorato Malagise’s spell book leads to the dispersal of various characters. Once Angelica takes the book, she immediately uses it to send Malagise to imprisonment in Cathay. Not long after, Angelica uses the book to return to Cathay herself. Thus the book indirectly contributes to Orlando’s departure from France in search of her, and the consequent departures of other knights in search of him.

In Malagise’s hands the spell book has no less harmful effects. When Angelica returns it to him, he fulfills his promise to her by sending Ranaldo from Europe to the Palazzo Zoioso. He is willing to kidnap Ranaldo despite easily foreseeable dire consequences for the Christians. Moreover, Malagise’s anger at Ranaldo leads him to employ a method unnecessarily harmful to the paladin’s reputation, leading directly to Ranaldo’s dishonor in the eyes of the pagan enemies, to the alliance of the separate pagan forces of Marsilio and Gradasso, to their invasion of France, and to the siege of Paris.

Finally, late in the poem, Malagise’s abortive ambush of the pagan knights results in his own and his brother’s capture by the Saracens. Taken out of play, they will have to await rescue in the Furioso.

Two of Ariosto’s characters offer no surprises in this regard. Malagigi continues to make counterproductive efforts; when he uses his book to locate Angelica for the enamored Rinaldo, he contributes once again to Rinaldo’s departure from the realm of his epic duty. Second, Atlante’s whole purpose in the Furioso is to block the advancement of the plot. His spell book helps him do so in the episode of the steel palace.

Surprisingly, Ariosto presents two cases of spell books promoting orderly effects. The hermit who interrupts the duel between Rinaldo and Sacripante produces mixed results. In preserving Angelica’s freedom, he contributes to the continuing dispersal of her questing suitors and of those characters who set out in search of them. Furthermore, he strengthens the rivalry and enmity between Rinaldo and Orlando. Nevertheless, the direct and immediate result of the hermit’s deception is Rinaldo’s return to Charlemagne and his ultimately successful quest for reinforcements. This happy outcome is of no concern to the hermit, who is interested only in Angelica. Rather, it shows that in the Furioso the chaotic can work to the detriment of pagans as well as Christians, whether through random chance or the manipulation of God or the poet.

The more important exception to the general rule is Melissa. A powerful force for order, Melissa lends all of her efforts toward the convergence of certain characters, namely Bradamante and Ruggiero. The pageant showing Bradamante’s descendants encourages Bradamante in her intentions to find and marry Ruggiero. Melissa has chosen a difficult task and suffers a number of setbacks before she achieves her goal; nevertheless, she is so capable and has such firm control of herself and her powers that her spells never backfire.

The Sorcerer’s Failure

Spell books are also associated with the failure in some manner of the sorcerer who uses them. Both poets employ a pattern of magnification (the sorcerer has amazing powers with his book) then deflation (some misfortune befalls him without his book), which implies that the sorcerer is overly reliant on the spell book’s powers.

Although there are many practitioners of magic in the Innamorato, only Malagise owns a spell book. Is he privileged by the possession of a book, a symbol of learning? Logically, the fays do not need such books because magic comes naturally to them, but it is strange that none of the other human sorcerers uses spell books. While the book would seem to be a powerful tool, we shall see that it fosters dependence so that without it Malagise is powerless, and that its use actually portends failure.

The opening canto of the poem is promising for Malagise; he shows perspicacity superior to all the other men when he is able to resist Angelica’s charms and recognize that she is not who she claims to be. His book then allows him to be the only one to determine the true identity and purpose of the Cathayan travelers, and to transport himself effortlessly to their camp. Reading less than a page of his book, he puts to sleep the giant guards, with the intention of killing Angelica. However, once he is close to her, he joins all the other men in succumbing to her beauty and decides to rape her. He takes what seem to him to be elaborate precautions, reading the entire book to make certain she will continue to sleep. Relying solely on the book’s power, Malagise forgets or disregards the demons’ warning about the magic ring, which nullifies all of his spells. Someone with less implicit confidence in the book’s invincibility would have taken to heart this warning, and would have taken steps to locate the ring and to counter its effects. When Angelica takes his book she takes his power, and effortlessly turns it against him. Thus, the confiscation of Malagise’s book strengthens the Cathayan threat, while the Christians are left unsuspecting of the danger. The later episode, already described, of Malagise’s ambush of the pagan knights also follows the pattern of magnification and deflation, and ends again with Malagise’s own capture.

Thus, in the Innamorato Malagise’s spell book highlights his lack of power. Two of his three spells fail, leading both times to his capture by pagan enemies and his removal from the Christian arena of duty. In fact, the only time the book achieves his goal is when he fails in his duty by vengefully sending Ranaldo away from his duty. The only time Malagise’s efforts are beneficial, when he tells Angelica how to rescue Ranaldo from Crudel Rocca, the book is not mentioned at all.

It is possible that this pattern of failure reflects a lack on Malagise’s part, since Angelica is able to use the book without her efforts backfiring. There is some lexical support for this idea; while Angelica has the book it is always called “libro,” but in Malagise’s hands it is referred to only once as “libro,” once as “quaderno,” and four times as “libretto,” suggesting that it is less powerful for him.

Ariosto pursues Boiardo’s characterization of the fallible Malagigi. The most famous example is the episode of Doralice’s horse. Malagigi, newly liberated from the Saracens, is explicitly bereft of his book:

Malagigi, che sa d’ogni malia

quel che ne sappia alcun mago eccellente,

ancor che ’l libro suo seco non sia,

con che fermare il sole era possente,

pur la scongiurazione onde solia

commandare ai demoni aveva a mente:

tosto in corpo al ronzino un ne costringe

di Doralice, ed in furor lo spinge. (26.128)

Ariosto’s Malagigi is not completely powerless without his book, unlike Boiardo’s Malagise; his hurried spell removes the immediate danger to his friends. While his power with his book is magnified out of proportion to his accomplishments in the Innamorato, it appears at first that he has done well without it. This appearance is brief, as the reader learns only a few octaves later: “Parve, e non fu però buono il consiglio / di Malagigi” (27.2). The demon works slyly against him, leading Rodomonte and Mandricardo, followed soon after by Ruggiero and Marfisa, back to aid in the siege of Paris.

The lecherous hermit’s spells all succeed, from the deception of the knights to the kidnapping of Angelica. However, his most memorable scene is that of his physical impotence with Angelica. The sense of menace when Angelica lies helpless before the “vecchio rapace” is soon dissipated by the series of double entendres. Despite his efficacy at magic, the hermit’s lasting impression is unquestionably comical.

Ariosto’s treatment of spell books as portents of failure^[2] leads him to give one to Atlante, who had none in Boiardo’s poem. Atlante’s efforts are doomed ultimately because they conflict with the destiny determined by the poet. In the episode of the steel palace, the specific means chosen for Atlante’s downfall is the spell book; its loss changes him from a “uomo feroce” into “un debol vecchio.” As soon as Atlante sets aside “il libro che facea tutta la guerra,” Bradamante captures him and forces him to free his prisoners. Atlante’s book is not mentioned again, but he does not miss it at all. In fact, his later spells are far more seductive and difficult to escape. Paradoxically, he becomes more effective without his book.

Melissa is once again an exception to the rule. Her illusionary pageant goes according to plan. Her success, however, depends more on her personality than her spell book. For one thing, she is able to control the demons before she opens her book at the start of the pageant. Also, as in Atlante’s case, no further mention is made of Melissa’s book in all her later appearances, and her effectiveness is by no means reduced; on the contrary, her later spells are more impressive and more important to the plot.

How-to Books

Reading Ability

Books in the poems are not the poets’ only vehicles, or even their main vehicles, for references to literature and art. Donato remarks that

in every instance where a book is mentioned in the Orlando Furioso, it is either in a theological context or in the domain of negative theology of which necromancy partakes. . . . Not once . . . is the book as book associated with literature in general or [Ariosto’s] own enterprise in particular. (57–58)

Literary and artistic allusions may instead be made through works of art, trees, and allegories.^[3]

Nevertheless, a primary issue for all the how-to books is reading ability. How much do the knights learn from what they read?

The first how-to book of the Innamorato belongs to a palmer whose son is rescued by Orlando. Out of gratitude, the palmer gives to the knight this book

Che è de virtù mirabile e soprana,

Perché ogni dubbioso ragionare

Su queste carte si dichiara e spiana. (1.5.67)

The utility of a book, however, is only as great as the perspicacity of its reader. Orlando thinks to check the book only after he has bloodily defeated the Sphinx, remarking comically “Io fui ben smemorato!” (1.5.76.6). The palmer presented his gift to a knight so strong that he had never needed such help, and was accustomed to solving problems with immediate action. This is an obvious example of Orlando’s ineptness as a reader.^[4] With the punch line delivered, the palmer’s book fades into oblivion as Orlando confronts his next battle.

However, the lesson of the palmer’s book is not completely in vain, for when later Orlando receives how-to books he makes some use of them. In Cantos 24 and 25 of Book 1 he faces Morgana’s trials with the help of her official rule book, and in Book 2 Cantos 4 and 5 he destroys Falerina’s garden with the guidance of a book.

Orlando chooses to undergo Morgana’s trials out of a knightly desire to prove his valor, although the stated reward for victory is a “cosa tanto aventurata” that it will content him for the rest of his life. After summoning each new trial with the magic horn, Orlando must read the book’s instructions to succeed. Consequently, the book itself forms part of the test; the hero must be quick to assimilate the instructions before the monster is upon him. Orlando’s glorious victory, however, receives no reward beyond the honor of it, because the “cavallier perfetto” disdains the reward of worldly wealth. The reader must wait several cantos to learn the true significance of the trial of the horn, i.e. that Orlando’s victory broke the spell that Morgana had intended for the ruination of the world.

The book that Orlando brings into Falerina’s garden contains a map of the garden and descriptions of its inhabitants. Unfortunately, by the time he enters the garden he has forgotten the book. Once he remembers it, the book guides him in the defeat of each monster, until the giant guardian of the northern gate. According to the book this giant cannot be defeated, neither by strength, daring, one’s own wisdom, nor the advice of others. Orlando’s response is a characteristic “Chi può durare, al fin vince ogni cosa” (2.4.65.8), and he wins this time by his own cleverness as well as his strength. While he succeeds in defiance of the book’s dictum, he must refer to it again in order to learn how to destroy the garden completely. Thus Boiardo gives concrete evidence that writers are fallible, too, in this case by underestimating human virtù.^[5]

Boiardo’s Orlando is by no means a sophisticated or attentive reader, but he can progress. His laughable forgetfulness in the case of the palmer’s book is followed by an impressive display of quick-witted reading ability combined with combat skill during Morgana’s trial. In Falerina’s garden he backslides at first, forgetting to use the guidebook, but goes on to an excellent critical reading. Not only does he follow the book’s instructions effectively; in the end he revises its inaccurate, defeatist conclusion. Boiardo may at times poke fun at Orlando, but the paladin also has his moments of triumph.^[6] For Boiardo, a knight is better for being a skilled reader, but his fighting skill is truly indispensable, and may sometimes obviate the need for bookish wisdom.

Logistilla’s how-to book is one of her generous gifts to Astolfo in Canto 15. Astolfo, in contrast to Boiardo’s Orlando, is perceptive enough to know when to resort to the book or his other magical artifacts. He can destroy Atlante’s palace because he is the only knight to recognize the illusions (“s’avvide che quel loco era incantato,” 22.16.2). When the book leaves him with a tactical dilemma in the case of Orrilo, he is able to concoct a practical plan. Similar to Boiardo, Ariosto’s conception of a skillful reader includes an ability to think for oneself.

Orderly Effects

In contrast to the spell books, the how-to books have anti-magical functions, and consequently they promote the orderly advancement of the plot. Specifically, they break up blocks in the plot. In the Innamorato the three how-to books are each designed to help Orlando overcome a deadly peril: the palmer’s book for the Sphinx, Morgana’s book for her trial, and the guidebook for Falerina’s garden. While in the first episode the paladin succeeds on his own, the other times the books help him put an end to dangers that threaten many characters, even to the point where he is credited with saving the world.

In the Furioso, Logistilla explicitly intends her book to help Astolfo avoid inescapable magical prisons:

e per schivar che non sia più ridutto

per arte maga, onde non possa uscire,

un bello ed util libro gli avea dato. (15.13)

And in fact, Astolfo finds in it the secrets to defeating Orrilo and destroying Atlante’s palace of illusions, both of which act as important blocks to the advancement of the plot. Astolfo himself, Aquilante, Grifone, and Atlante’s many noteworthy prisoners are freed to pursue their duties.

Conclusion

In both the Innamorato and the Furioso magic is generally associated with the chaotic, tending to hinder the advancement of the plot toward a conclusion. Magic books in the two poems provide a good example. The magical spell books and the anti-magical how-to books have oppositional characteristics. All but one of the spell books have chaotic effects. All but one have to do with demons. Most of them bring to light the fallibility of their wielder, implying that the sorcerer’s dependence on the book leaves him impotent without it. On the other hand, the how-to books promote progress by breaking up plot blocks. They provide opportunities for the knight to display his reading ability and whether he has learned from experience. Even in the worst case of poor reading, the knight is effective on his own. In the best cases the knight’s independence allows him to add to or correct the text.

Having looked closely at the opposition of magic to the orderly conclusion of the tale, with its inevitable victory of the Christian heroes, I would like to conclude with some broader observations. In the Innamorato all the practitioners of magic hinder the plot. By imprisonment or by death or by displacement, Boiardo’s sorcerers delay and distract knights. Ariosto adds a new element when he presents some sorcerers who are powerful forces for order, as well as those who perform the traditional delaying tactics. Magic, the chaotic, can be used for good purposes, just as Melissa teaches that deception can be. However, like the knight with his horse (Giamatti, “Sfrenatura”), the sorcerer must practice control—the control that Logistilla tries to teach Ruggiero, the control necessary to master oneself and magic. Otherwise the slippery force of magic will treacherously turn against the sorcerer, as it does for Malagigi. In Ariosto’s world control may be extremely difficult and rare, but it is possible, at least for a “lucido intervallo.”

The contrast of order and chaos of which I have spoken is not a clear black and white, good and evil opposition for either author. In Boiardo’s poem the disruptive effect of magic is not seen as strongly negative, since his march toward an eventual conclusion lacks urgency. The adventures that temporarily distract the characters from their goals are just as important as the adventures necessary to achieve those goals. Magic is a source of meraviglia and diletto, which help make life worthwhile. The dispersive motifs of love, adventure, and magic are necessary parts of a life lived fully, as necessary as duty and reason.

In the Furioso the association of magic with chaos is contrasted much more strongly with a positive concept of order, reason, harmony, and Providence. Delays are more significant, since everything is being orchestrated toward a conclusion. Still, Ariosto’s ideal is not so simplistic, static, and oppressive as the complete subjugation of the chaotic, but rather a harmony with variety. He knows that people have a need for the irrational.^[7] Privileged moments can be achieved, but only briefly. Despite the triumph of civilization and harmony at the end of the poem, it is clearly only a “lucido intervallo.” Conflict will return as soon as the Cinque canti. Ruggiero will be treacherously killed only for the cycle to repeat, when Bradamante and Marfisa restore a temporary harmony by avenging him, until eventually the golden age of Cinquecento Ferrara will arrive, only to be plagued by contemporary “barbari.”

Works Cited

Ariosto, Ludovico. Orlando furioso. 2 vols. Milano: Garzanti, 1982.

Ascoli, Albert Russell. Ariosto’s Bitter Harmony: Crisis
and Evasion in the Italian Renaissance. Princeton: Princeton UP, 1987.

Baillet, Roger. Le monde poétique de l’Arioste. Lyon: L’Hermès, 1977.

Boiardo, Matteo Maria. Orlando innamorato. Ed. Giuseppe Anceschi. 2 vols. Milano: Garzanti, 1986.

Cavallo, Jo Ann. Boiardo’s Orlando innamorato: An Ethics of Desire. Teaneck: Fairleigh Dickinson UP, 1993.

Comparetti, Domenico. Vergil in the Middle Ages. Trans. E. F. M. Benecke. 2nd ed. 1908. Hamden, CT: Archon, 1966.

Donato, Eugenio. “‘Per selve e boscherecci labirinti’: Desire and Narrative in Ariosto’s Orlando furioso.” Literary Theory/Renaissance Texts. Ed. Patricia Parker and David Quint. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins UP, 1986. 33–62.

Giamatti, A. Bartlett. The Earthly Paradise and the Renaissance Epic. Princeton: Princeton UP, 1966.

___. “Sfrenatura: Restraint and Release in the Orlando furioso.” Ariosto 1974 in America: Atti del congresso ariostesco. Ed Aldo Scaglione. Ravenna: Longo, 1976. 31–39.

Kisacky, Julia M. “Magic in Boiardo and Ariosto.” Diss. Rutgers U, 1995.

Negri, Renzo. Interpretazione dell’Orlando furioso. Milano: Marzorati, 1971.

Quint, David. “Epic and Empire.” Comparative Literature 41 (1989): 1–32.

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^[1]Comparetti details how this medieval concept of the magician’s spell book led, once Vergil’s reputation as a magician was established, to several legends that would have the Latin poet learning the black arts from a book (316–18 and 352–53).

^[2]While focusing on Ariosto’s use of humor, Baillet made several of these same observations: “[Ariosto] n’adhère pas à ces manifestations extra-terrestres, dont l’abstraction est soulignée par le recours aux livres de magie. Cet aspect très intellectuel du fabuleux éveille toujours sa verve satirique. Il met d’ailleurs l’accent sur l’impuissance réelle des possesseurs de ce pouvoir . . .” (311).

^[3]Many critics have written about this important topic. For the Innamorato, see Cavallo. For the Furioso, see Ascoli, especially ch. 3 (and about trees, 158); Giamatti, “Sfrenatura”; and Donato.

^[4]Throughout her book, Cavallo points out examples of Orlando’s failure to read and learn from the warnings provided to him. She sees Ranaldo as an ideal reader, especially in her ch. 7.

^[5]Interestingly, Fiordelisa has a copy of this guidebook, enabling her to describe Falerina’s garden to Ranaldo in 1.17.39–45, long before Orlando goes there. However, Fiordelisa convinces Ranaldo to defer this adventure, so her book ends up never being used. Magic abounds in Boiardo’s world, even to the point of superfluity.

^[6]Cavallo reviews Orlando’s pattern of sporadic progress in her ch. 11.

^[7]Both Quint and Giamatti have expressed this concept with references to Alcina. Quint interprets Alcina’s inability to die as Ariosto’s recognition that desires are an ineradicable part of the human (19). Likewise Giamatti concludes that Alcina’s garden is dangerous but man cannot reject it because it is so much a part of himself (Earthly Paradise 164).